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=== Emotions ===
=== Emotions ===
Emotions constitute to a person's reactions to internal and external events. <ref>Loderer, K., Pekrun, R., & Plass, J. (2020). Emotional foundations of game-based learning [Print]. In Handbook of Game-based Learning (pp. 113–114). ‎ The MIT Press.</ref> Emotional reactions consists of multiple components such as:
Emotions are defined as multifaceted phenomena <ref>Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis</ref> involving sets of coordinated psychological processes, including affective, cognitive, physiological, motivational, and expressive components <ref>Kleinginna, P. R., & Kleinginna, A. M. (1981). A categorized list of emotion definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 345–379</ref>.


# Affective - includes subjective feelings Eg: Positive appreciation connected to gratitude
Loderer et al <ref>Loderer, K., Pekrun, R., & Plass, J. (2020). Emotional foundations of game-based learning [Print]. In Handbook of Game-based Learning (pp. 113–114). ‎ The MIT Press.</ref> explain emotions as a person’s reactions to internal and external events and describe its components as:
# Cognitive - consists of emotion-specific thoughts Eg: Confidence in one's ability to solve a current problem
 
# Physiological - supported associated action Eg: Physiological activation for sadness  
# <u>Affective components</u> - subjective feelings (for example, positive appreciation connected to gratitude)
# Motivational - encompasses behavioral tendencies Eg: Disengaging during boredom
# <u>Cognitive components</u> - consisting of emotion-specific thoughts (e.g. confidence in one’s ability to solve a current problem)
# Expressive - facial, postural and vocal expression Eg: Speaking in a soft voice <ref>Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. R. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.</ref>
# <u>Physiological component</u>s - supporting associated action (e.g. physiological activation for sadness)
# <u>Motivational components</u> - encompassing behavioral tendencies (e.g: tendencies to disengage during boredom)
# <u>Expressive components</u> - facial, postural, and vocal expression (e.g. speaking in a soft voice) <ref>Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. R. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.</ref>


=== Learning Emotions ===
=== Learning Emotions ===
Emotions are extremely crucial towards learning because the long-term memory stores factual and emotional associations to prior knowledge. <ref>Bower, G. H., & Forgas, J. P. (2001). Mood and social memory. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of affect and social cognition (pp. 95–120). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.</ref>  
Emotions are crucial to learning because long-term memory stores factual and emotional associations to prior knowledge.<ref>Bower, G. H., & Forgas, J. P. (2001). Mood and social memory. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of affect and social cognition (pp. 95–120). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.</ref> Moreover, emotions  experienced in the educational settings are instrumental in academic achievement and personal growth.


==== Types of learning emotions ====
For example, a student might experience enjoyment while working on a challenging task. Thus promoting creativity, achievement of goals, flexible problem-solving, and supports in self-regulation <ref>Clore, G. L., & Huntsinger, J. R. (2009). How the object of affect guides its impact. Emotion Review, 1, 39–54</ref>. Conversely, a student may also experience excessive anxiety while learning particular subjects thereby impeding their academic performance and ability. This may also have a detrimental effect on their psychological and physical health. <ref>Zeidner, M. (1998) . Test anxiety: The state of the art. New York, NY: Plenum.</ref>
 
== '''Types of learning emotions''' ==
[[File:Valence x activation classification of learning relevant emotions.png|thumb]]
According to Russell <ref>Russell, J. A. (1978). Evidence of convergent validity on the dimensions of affect. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36''(10), 1152–1168. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.10.1152</nowiki></ref>, the two most important dimensions to emotions for explaining variance in human affect are valence (pleasant/ positive, unpleasant/ negative) and activation (activating, deactivating).
 
=== Dimensions of emotions ===
In terms of valence, positive (i.e., pleasant) states, such as enjoyment and happiness, can be differentiated from negative (i.e., unpleasant) states, such as anger, anxiety, or boredom. With respect to activation, physiologically activating states differ from deactivating states, such as activating excitement versus deactivating relaxation.  <ref>Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.</ref>.
 
=== Important learning emotions ===
According to Loderer et al (2020) <ref>Loderer, K., Pekrun, R., & Plass, J. (2020). Emotional foundations of game-based learning [Print]. In Handbook of Game-based Learning (pp. 113–114). ‎ The MIT Press.</ref>, the following groups of emotions are important with respect to learning:
 
# '''Achievement emotions'''  Pekrun et al <ref>Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2014). Introduction to emotions in education. In ''International Handbook of Emotions in Education''. Taylor & Francis Group.</ref> define achievement emotions as “emotions that relate to activities or outcomes that are judged according to competence-related standards of quality.” Achievement emotions can be further classified as:[[File:Types of achievement emotions.png|thumb|454x454px]]Outcome emotions can include prospective emotions such as anxiety or hope regarding future activities or retrospective emotions, like guilt, pride, or shame relating to a past achievement.
# '''Epistemic emotions'''Emotions can be caused by cognitive qualities and the processing of task information. <ref>Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2014). Introduction to emotions in education. In ''International Handbook of Emotions in Education''. Taylor & Francis Group.</ref> A typical sequence of epistemic emotions induced by a cognitive problem may involve (1) surprise, (2) curiosity and situational interest if the surprise is not dissolved, (3) anxiety in case of severe incongruity and information that deeply disturbs existing cognitive schemas, (4) enjoyment and delight experienced when recombining information such that the problem gets solved, or (5) frustration when this seems not to be possible. <ref>D’Mello, S. K., & Graesser, A. C. (2014). Confusion. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 289–310). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.</ref>
# '''Social emotions'''Emotions experienced concerning others or in social contexts are called social emotions. Social interactions tend to influence the interactions and engagement of the learner and the other members of their environment. For example, the feelings of envy or awe of others for their achievements.
# '''Topic emotions'''Emotions elicited by the contents covered by the material to be learned are called topic emotions. For example, experiencing anxiety while studying mathematics or joy while playing a science simulation.


== '''Evidence''' ==
== '''Evidence''' ==


Emotions can influence cognitive processes and learn <ref>Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for


== '''Design Implications''' ==
educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-</nowiki>


9029-9.</ref> <ref>Yang, H., Yang, S., & Isen, A. M. (2013). Positive affect improves working memory: Implications for controlled cognitive


processing. Cognition & Emotion, 27(3), 474–482.</ref> They strengthen initial learning by yielding the power of focusing attention. Moreover, learners can recall strong emotional experiences later in time. <ref>Bower, G. (1994). Some relations between emotions and memory. In The nature of emotions: Fundamental questions. Oxford University Press</ref>
The role of emotions in learning can assume two hypotheses:
# Emotions as suppressors of learning
# Emotions as facilitators of learning
=== Emotions as suppressors of learning ===
This hypothesis postulates that emotions impair information processing by taking away attention from information to be learned. <ref>Uzun, A. M., & Yıldırım, Z. (2018). Exploring the effect of using different levels of emotional design features in multimedia science learning. Computers & Education, 119, 112–128.</ref> For example, if a learner has emotions that affect their perception of the task, it places additional demand on the working memory while learning. This interferes with the processing of essential information. <ref>Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory. New York: Springer.</ref>
=== Emotions as facilitators of learning ===
Knörzer et al <ref>Knörzer, L., Brünken, R., & Park, B. (2016). Emotions and multimedia learning: The moderating role of learner characteristics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(6), 618–631.</ref> posit that emotions as a facilitator-of-learning hypothesis assume that emotion fosters information processing. Studies <ref>Erez, A., & Isen, A. M. (2002). The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1055–1067 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1055</nowiki>.</ref> have suggested that positive emotions have a positive impact on information processing. Moreover, emotions also expand the scope of attention while learning <ref>Chung, S., Cheon, J., & Lee, K. W. (2015). Emotion and multimedia learning: An investigation of the effects of valence and arousal on different modalities in an instructional animation. Instructional  Science, 43(5), 545–559.</ref>. Um, et al. <ref>Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 104(2), 485–498.</ref> argued that emotion facilitates working memory processes, e.g. memory encoding. Positive emotions also facilitate retrieving information from long-term memory by serving as a cue <ref>Isen, A.M., Thomas, E.S., Clark, M., & Karp, L. (1978). Affect, accessibility of material in memory, and behavior: A cognitive loop? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,36(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.36.1.1</nowiki></ref>. This also results in better learning taking place in a positive state of mind <ref>Rader, N., & Hughes, E. (2005). The influence of affective state on the performance of a block design task in 6- and 7-year-old children. Cognition & Emotion, 19(1), 143–150 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000049</nowiki>.</ref>. Learners are also able to form associations with their prior knowledge with the help of positive emotions, thereby contributing to meaningful learning as a result of deeper understanding.  
== '''Implications to learning design''' ==
Emotional design becomes important in learning design <ref>Mayer, R. E., & Estrella, G. (2014). Benefits of emotional design in multimedia instruction. Learning & Instruction, 33(33), 12–18 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.004</nowiki>.</ref> as it directs the learner's attention toward essential learning material and motivates them to learn deeper. For example, a student may experience positive emotions like empathy in a classroom where the teacher extends kindness toward their learner. Thus the learner tends to learn in a relaxed atmosphere fostered by the teacher. This also improves their perception of the subject matter and the teacher. The student may also experience enjoyment as an activity emotion. Furthermore, this would also increase the learner's engagement in the process and improves the outcome of their performance.
With respect to multimedia design, Um, et al <ref>Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 485–498.</ref> study established that students learning material that aimed to foster positive emotional multimedia design generated higher positive emotions and learned better as tested in retention and transfer tests. Supporting this, Mayer and Estrella <ref>Mayer, R. E., & Estrella, G. (2014). Benefits of emotional design in multimedia instruction. Learning & Instruction, 33(33), 12–18 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.004</nowiki>.</ref>, concluded that students who learned material with a positive emotional learning design performed better than students from the controlled group. Heidig, et al <ref>Heidig, S., Müller, J., & Reichelt, M. (2015). Emotional design in multimedia learning: Differentiation on relevant design features and their effects on emotions and learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 44(44), 81–95 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb</nowiki>.
2014.11.009.</ref> also concluded that the learner’s emotional states affected their intrinsic learning motivation.
== '''Challenges''' ==
== '''Challenges''' ==
While research has focused on emotional design and learning, there is very little research that currently exists in order to understand the emotions the learner experienced during the process of learning.<ref>Li, J., Luo, C., Zhang, Q., & Shadiev, R. (2020). Can emotional design really evoke emotion in multimedia learning? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 17(1). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00198-y</nowiki></ref> Moreover theories like the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning does not consider the impact of emotion in learning that may affect the cognitive load to exceed the cognitive capacity of the learner’s working memory. Furthermore, given differences between individuals and cultures, there are varying intensities, expressive behavior and internal experiences that students undergo during the process of learning which need to be further investigated and validated.
Metacognition and emotions are remains as one area of crucial study, since metacognition is an effective strategy for generative processing. Understanding the role of emotions in this process would help in designing tools that would account into factors of emotional design while developing metacognitive tools for learning.
== '''References''' ==

Revision as of 23:50, 20 November 2022

Overview

Emotions

Emotions are defined as multifaceted phenomena [1] involving sets of coordinated psychological processes, including affective, cognitive, physiological, motivational, and expressive components [2].

Loderer et al [3] explain emotions as a person’s reactions to internal and external events and describe its components as:

  1. Affective components - subjective feelings (for example, positive appreciation connected to gratitude)
  2. Cognitive components - consisting of emotion-specific thoughts (e.g. confidence in one’s ability to solve a current problem)
  3. Physiological components - supporting associated action (e.g. physiological activation for sadness)
  4. Motivational components - encompassing behavioral tendencies (e.g: tendencies to disengage during boredom)
  5. Expressive components - facial, postural, and vocal expression (e.g. speaking in a soft voice) [4]

Learning Emotions

Emotions are crucial to learning because long-term memory stores factual and emotional associations to prior knowledge.[5] Moreover, emotions experienced in the educational settings are instrumental in academic achievement and personal growth.

For example, a student might experience enjoyment while working on a challenging task. Thus promoting creativity, achievement of goals, flexible problem-solving, and supports in self-regulation [6]. Conversely, a student may also experience excessive anxiety while learning particular subjects thereby impeding their academic performance and ability. This may also have a detrimental effect on their psychological and physical health. [7]

Types of learning emotions

Valence x activation classification of learning relevant emotions.png

According to Russell [8], the two most important dimensions to emotions for explaining variance in human affect are valence (pleasant/ positive, unpleasant/ negative) and activation (activating, deactivating).

Dimensions of emotions

In terms of valence, positive (i.e., pleasant) states, such as enjoyment and happiness, can be differentiated from negative (i.e., unpleasant) states, such as anger, anxiety, or boredom. With respect to activation, physiologically activating states differ from deactivating states, such as activating excitement versus deactivating relaxation. [9].

Important learning emotions

According to Loderer et al (2020) [10], the following groups of emotions are important with respect to learning:

  1. Achievement emotions Pekrun et al [11] define achievement emotions as “emotions that relate to activities or outcomes that are judged according to competence-related standards of quality.” Achievement emotions can be further classified as:
    Types of achievement emotions.png
    Outcome emotions can include prospective emotions such as anxiety or hope regarding future activities or retrospective emotions, like guilt, pride, or shame relating to a past achievement.
  2. Epistemic emotionsEmotions can be caused by cognitive qualities and the processing of task information. [12] A typical sequence of epistemic emotions induced by a cognitive problem may involve (1) surprise, (2) curiosity and situational interest if the surprise is not dissolved, (3) anxiety in case of severe incongruity and information that deeply disturbs existing cognitive schemas, (4) enjoyment and delight experienced when recombining information such that the problem gets solved, or (5) frustration when this seems not to be possible. [13]
  3. Social emotionsEmotions experienced concerning others or in social contexts are called social emotions. Social interactions tend to influence the interactions and engagement of the learner and the other members of their environment. For example, the feelings of envy or awe of others for their achievements.
  4. Topic emotionsEmotions elicited by the contents covered by the material to be learned are called topic emotions. For example, experiencing anxiety while studying mathematics or joy while playing a science simulation.

Evidence

Emotions can influence cognitive processes and learn [14] [15] They strengthen initial learning by yielding the power of focusing attention. Moreover, learners can recall strong emotional experiences later in time. [16]

The role of emotions in learning can assume two hypotheses:

  1. Emotions as suppressors of learning
  2. Emotions as facilitators of learning

Emotions as suppressors of learning

This hypothesis postulates that emotions impair information processing by taking away attention from information to be learned. [17] For example, if a learner has emotions that affect their perception of the task, it places additional demand on the working memory while learning. This interferes with the processing of essential information. [18]

Emotions as facilitators of learning

Knörzer et al [19] posit that emotions as a facilitator-of-learning hypothesis assume that emotion fosters information processing. Studies [20] have suggested that positive emotions have a positive impact on information processing. Moreover, emotions also expand the scope of attention while learning [21]. Um, et al. [22] argued that emotion facilitates working memory processes, e.g. memory encoding. Positive emotions also facilitate retrieving information from long-term memory by serving as a cue [23]. This also results in better learning taking place in a positive state of mind [24]. Learners are also able to form associations with their prior knowledge with the help of positive emotions, thereby contributing to meaningful learning as a result of deeper understanding.  

Implications to learning design

Emotional design becomes important in learning design [25] as it directs the learner's attention toward essential learning material and motivates them to learn deeper. For example, a student may experience positive emotions like empathy in a classroom where the teacher extends kindness toward their learner. Thus the learner tends to learn in a relaxed atmosphere fostered by the teacher. This also improves their perception of the subject matter and the teacher. The student may also experience enjoyment as an activity emotion. Furthermore, this would also increase the learner's engagement in the process and improves the outcome of their performance.

With respect to multimedia design, Um, et al [26] study established that students learning material that aimed to foster positive emotional multimedia design generated higher positive emotions and learned better as tested in retention and transfer tests. Supporting this, Mayer and Estrella [27], concluded that students who learned material with a positive emotional learning design performed better than students from the controlled group. Heidig, et al [28] also concluded that the learner’s emotional states affected their intrinsic learning motivation.

Challenges

While research has focused on emotional design and learning, there is very little research that currently exists in order to understand the emotions the learner experienced during the process of learning.[29] Moreover theories like the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning does not consider the impact of emotion in learning that may affect the cognitive load to exceed the cognitive capacity of the learner’s working memory. Furthermore, given differences between individuals and cultures, there are varying intensities, expressive behavior and internal experiences that students undergo during the process of learning which need to be further investigated and validated.


Metacognition and emotions are remains as one area of crucial study, since metacognition is an effective strategy for generative processing. Understanding the role of emotions in this process would help in designing tools that would account into factors of emotional design while developing metacognitive tools for learning.

References

  1. ↑ Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis
  2. ↑ Kleinginna, P. R., & Kleinginna, A. M. (1981). A categorized list of emotion definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 345–379
  3. ↑ Loderer, K., Pekrun, R., & Plass, J. (2020). Emotional foundations of game-based learning [Print]. In Handbook of Game-based Learning (pp. 113–114). ‎ The MIT Press.
  4. ↑ Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. R. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
  5. ↑ Bower, G. H., & Forgas, J. P. (2001). Mood and social memory. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of affect and social cognition (pp. 95–120). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  6. ↑ Clore, G. L., & Huntsinger, J. R. (2009). How the object of affect guides its impact. Emotion Review, 1, 39–54
  7. ↑ Zeidner, M. (1998) . Test anxiety: The state of the art. New York, NY: Plenum.
  8. ↑ Russell, J. A. (1978). Evidence of convergent validity on the dimensions of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(10), 1152–1168. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.10.1152
  9. ↑ Shuman, V., & Scherer, K. (2014). Concepts and structures of emotions. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 13–35). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
  10. ↑ Loderer, K., Pekrun, R., & Plass, J. (2020). Emotional foundations of game-based learning [Print]. In Handbook of Game-based Learning (pp. 113–114). ‎ The MIT Press.
  11. ↑ Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2014). Introduction to emotions in education. In International Handbook of Emotions in Education. Taylor & Francis Group.
  12. ↑ Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2014). Introduction to emotions in education. In International Handbook of Emotions in Education. Taylor & Francis Group.
  13. ↑ D’Mello, S. K., & Graesser, A. C. (2014). Confusion. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 289–310). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
  14. ↑ Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006- 9029-9.
  15. ↑ Yang, H., Yang, S., & Isen, A. M. (2013). Positive affect improves working memory: Implications for controlled cognitive processing. Cognition & Emotion, 27(3), 474–482.
  16. ↑ Bower, G. (1994). Some relations between emotions and memory. In The nature of emotions: Fundamental questions. Oxford University Press
  17. ↑ Uzun, A. M., & Yıldırım, Z. (2018). Exploring the effect of using different levels of emotional design features in multimedia science learning. Computers & Education, 119, 112–128.
  18. ↑ Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory. New York: Springer.
  19. ↑ Knörzer, L., Brünken, R., & Park, B. (2016). Emotions and multimedia learning: The moderating role of learner characteristics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(6), 618–631.
  20. ↑ Erez, A., & Isen, A. M. (2002). The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1055–1067 https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1055.
  21. ↑ Chung, S., Cheon, J., & Lee, K. W. (2015). Emotion and multimedia learning: An investigation of the effects of valence and arousal on different modalities in an instructional animation. Instructional Science, 43(5), 545–559.
  22. ↑ Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 485–498.
  23. ↑ Isen, A.M., Thomas, E.S., Clark, M., & Karp, L. (1978). Affect, accessibility of material in memory, and behavior: A cognitive loop? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,36(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.36.1.1
  24. ↑ Rader, N., & Hughes, E. (2005). The influence of affective state on the performance of a block design task in 6- and 7-year-old children. Cognition & Emotion, 19(1), 143–150 https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000049.
  25. ↑ Mayer, R. E., & Estrella, G. (2014). Benefits of emotional design in multimedia instruction. Learning & Instruction, 33(33), 12–18 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.004.
  26. ↑ Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 485–498.
  27. ↑ Mayer, R. E., & Estrella, G. (2014). Benefits of emotional design in multimedia instruction. Learning & Instruction, 33(33), 12–18 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.004.
  28. ↑ Heidig, S., Müller, J., & Reichelt, M. (2015). Emotional design in multimedia learning: Differentiation on relevant design features and their effects on emotions and learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 44(44), 81–95 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb. 2014.11.009.
  29. ↑ Li, J., Luo, C., Zhang, Q., & Shadiev, R. (2020). Can emotional design really evoke emotion in multimedia learning? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00198-y
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