Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

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Overview

The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) aims to understand how to use words and pictures to improve human learning. The theory builds on the multimedia principle, which suggests that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone.

CTML postulates that multimedia instructional messages designed with the understanding of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that do not take this into account. CTML is inspired by Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory, which focuses on managing cognitive load for learners to understand complex material.

CTML also considers factors such as the learner's prior knowledge, motivation and learning characteristics when designing effective multimedia instructional materials.

Three Assumptions

Traditional common-sensical perceptions about learning assume that learners possess a single-channel, unlimited capacity and passive processing system. However, CTML takes into consideration current research (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015; Mayer, 2011, 2021). The three assumptions by CTML are:

CTML Assumptions
Dual Channel Limited Capacity Active Processing
Humans process visual and auditory information from separate channels. Limited information can be processed in each channel at one time. Active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representation, integrating mental representation with other knowledge.

Dual Channel

The Dual Channel assumption posits that humans have two different ways of processing information. One channel processes visual/ spatial information like illustrations, animations, videos or texts. The other channel processes information in the form of auditory/ non-verbal sounds. Baddeley's model of working memory[1] and Paivio’s dual coding theory [2] have influenced this assumption.

Approaches for information processing

There are two approaches to understand how information is processed in the two channels:

Approaches towards Dual Channels
Representation mode Sensory mode
This approach evaluates if the information presented is verbal (spoken or printed) or non-verbal. According to this approach, one channel processes verbal material while the other processes visual material and non-verbal sounds. This approach focuses on whether learners initially process the presented material through their eyes (like pictures, video, animation, or printed words) or ears (like for spoken words or background sounds). This means that one channel processes visually represented material while the other processes auditorily represented material.

The CTML uses the sensory mode approach in its theory.

Important to Paivio’s dual-coding theory [3] is the idea of cross-channel representations. It refers to the learner’s ability to take information presented in one form (visual or auditory) and convert it to the other form after mentally processing it.

Limited Capacity

The idea of limited capacity makes it essential to measure the cognitive information-processing capacity of an individual. On average, while chunking, the human mind can retain 4-7 chunks of information in the working memory during information processing.

The limited capacity of processing information helps make decisions about which pieces of information to focus on, the connection between them and the connection to prior knowledge. The central executive controls the allocation of central resources [4], and metacognition strategies help allocate, monitor, coordinate and adjust limited cognitive resources.

Active Processing

Active processing is when a learner uses cognitive resources to make sense of incoming information by making sense and building a mental model of it. While structuring incoming knowledge, the learner uses process, comparison, generalization, enumeration and classification as knowledge structures. [5] In designing multimedia instructional material, it thus becomes essential to provide coherent structure and guidance on building knowledge structures for the learner to make sense of the materials.

Processes of Structuring Knowledge [6]
Knowledge Structure Representation
Process Cause-and-effect chains and consist of explanations of how some system works
Comparison Matrices and consist of comparisons among two or more elements along several dimensions
Generalisation Branching tree and consists of a main idea with subordinate supporting details.
Enumeration Lists and consist of a collection of items.
Classification Hierarchies and consist of sets and subsets

Cognitive Processes in Active Processing

These processes are essential for active learning [7] and take place within the working memory of the cognitive system. It involves activating prior knowledge from the long-term memory, analyzing and integrating it with incoming selected information.

Cognitive Processes in Active Learning [8]
Process Description
Selecting Attending to relevant material in the presented lesson for transfer to working memory
Organising Mentally organizing selected information into a coherent cognitive structure in working memory
Integrating Connecting cognitive structures with each other and with relevant prior knowledge activated from long-term memory

Three memory stores

According to CTML, there are three aspects of memory central to information processing. The are:

Memory stores in CTML [9]
Memory store Description Capacity Duration Format
Sensory Memory Stores the information received from a multimedia message. Consists of two parts: visual and auditory, which briefly copies the incoming words, pictures and sounds. Unlimited A few seconds Visual or auditory sensory images or sounds
Working memory Temporarily stores and manipulates information while it is being processed and used. Active processing in conscious awareness takes place in the working memory. This also involves creating mental representations. Limited Short Verbal and pictorial representations
Long-term memory Storehouse of knowledge, holding larger chunks of information for a long time. Information needs to be brought into working memory for processing. Unlimited Permanent Knowledge


File:Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.png


Multimedia presentation enters the learner's mind and is perceived through sensory memory - either through the eyes or ears. Only selected words enter the working memory where the information is being processed, manipulated and integrated. The prior knowledge structures from the long-term memory are being activated and enter the working memory. The new information interacts and integrates with the prior knowledge. Metacognition and motivation affect the information processing in the working memory.

Five processes in CTML

In order to learn effectively in a multimedia environment, the learner needs to undergo five different processes, not necessarily in linear order, so that the learner can coordinate and monitor the incoming information.

Five cognitive processes in CTML [10]
Process Description Memory Processing
Selecting words Learner pays attention to relevant words in a multimedia message to create sounds From Sensory Memory to Working memory Learner engages in metacognitive processing while uses existing knowledge to determine which words are most relevant.
Selecting images Learner pays attention to relevant pictures in a multimedia message to create images From Sensory Memory to Working memory Learner engages in metacognitive processing while uses existing knowledge to determine which images are most relevant.
Organizing words Learner builds connections among selected words to create a coherent verbal model Inside the Working Memory Reflects the process of sense-making
Organizing images Learner builds connections among selected images to create a coherent pictorial model Inside the Working Memory Reflects the process of sense-making
Integrating Learner builds connections between verbal and pictorial models and with prior knowledge From Long-term Memory to Working Memory to Long-term Memory The effort required to engage in integrating is supported

by the learner’s motivation to understand the lesson

Five forms of representations

There are five forms in which words and pictures are represented as information in the form of stimuli to the learner. They can be elucidated as follows:

Five forms of representation in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning [11]
Types of knowledge Location Example
Words and pictures Multimedia presentation Sound waves created by narration of "This is a girl", pixel patterns on the computer screen showing a girl
Acoustic and iconic representations Sensory memory Received sounds in the learner's ears corresponding to the narration; Received image in the learner's eyes corresponding to the picture
Sounds and images Working memory Selection sounds "This is a girl"; Selecting the image of "girl"
Verbal and pictorial models Working memory Mental model of the girl
Prior knowledge Long-term memory Schema for characteristics of a girl


It is important to realize that the sensory representations fade rapidly unless the learner pays attention to them.

Three kinds of demands on cognitive load capacity

The learner's information processing system differs it cognitive capacity. The goal of effective instructional design is to guide the learner's learning without creating a cognitive overload on their working memory. This can be supported by the three kinds of demands on the learners information processing system:

Three demands on cognitive capacity during multimedia learning [12]
Name Description Cause Learning Process Example Relevant Mayer's Principles in Multimedia Learning
Extraneous Processing Cognitive processing not related to the instructional goal Poor instructional Design None Focusing on irrelevant material Expertise Reversal Principle, Coherence Principle, [[ Signaling Principle]],Redundancy Principle, Spatial Contiguity Principle, Temporal Contiguity Principle, Split Attention Principle, Worked Example Principle
Essential Processing Cognitive processing to represent the essential material in working memory Complexity of material presented Selecting [[ Multimedia Principle]], [[ Multiple Representation Principle]], [[ Segmenting Principle]], Pre-Training Principle, Modality Principle, Transient Information Principle , Immersion Principle
Generative Processing Cognitive processing aimed at making sense of the material Motivation to learn Organizing and integrating Personalization Principle, Voice Principle, Embodiment Principle, Collaboration Principle, Animation Principle, Emotion Design Principle, Generative Activity Principle, Self-Explanation Principle, Guided Discovery Principle, Mapping Principle , Drawing Principle,Imagination Principle, [[Guided Inquiry Principle], Feedback Principle, Learner Control Principle, Cognitive Load Self-Management Principle

Three learning scenarios

Principles for Multimedia Instructions

Future of Multimedia Learning

References

  1. ↑ Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
  2. ↑ Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149–210.
  3. ↑ Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Press
  4. ↑ Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston,MA: Allyn & Bacon.
  5. ↑ Chambliss, M. J., & Calfee, R. C. (1998). Textbooks for Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
  6. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  7. ↑ Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015). Learning as a Generative Activity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  8. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  9. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  10. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  11. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  12. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
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