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=== Overview ===
== '''Overview''' ==


The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) aims to understand how to use words and pictures to improve human learning. The theory builds on the multimedia principle, which suggests that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone.  
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) aims to understand how to use words and pictures to improve human learning. The theory builds on the multimedia principle, which suggests that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone.  


CTML postulates that multimedia instructional messages designed with the understanding of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that do not take this into account. CTML is inspired by Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory, which focuses on managing cognitive load for learners to understand complex material.
CTML postulates that multimedia instructional messages designed with the understanding of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that do not take this into account. CTML is inspired by Sweller's [[Cognitive Load Theory]], which focuses on managing cognitive load for learners to understand complex material.


CTML also considers factors such as the learner's prior knowledge, motivation and learning characteristics when designing effective multimedia instructional materials.
CTML also considers factors such as the learner's prior knowledge, motivation and learning characteristics when designing effective multimedia instructional materials. The three primary goals of instructional design are reduce extraneous processing, manage essential processing, and foster generative processing.  


=== Three assumptions ===
 
 
== '''Three Assumptions''' ==


Traditional common-sensical perceptions about learning assume that learners possess a single-channel, unlimited capacity and passive processing system. However, CTML takes into consideration current research (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015; Mayer, 2011, 2021). The three assumptions by CTML are:
Traditional common-sensical perceptions about learning assume that learners possess a single-channel, unlimited capacity and passive processing system. However, CTML takes into consideration current research (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015; Mayer, 2011, 2021). The three assumptions by CTML are:


# <u> 1. Dual Channel # </u>  
{| class="wikitable"
Humans process visual and auditory information from separate channels.
|+ CTML Assumptions
|-
! Dual Channel !! Limited Capacity !! Active Processing
|-
| Humans process visual and auditory information from separate channels. || Limited information can be processed in each channel at one time. || Active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representation, integrating mental representation with other knowledge.
|}
 
=== Dual Channel ===
 
The Dual Channel assumption posits that humans have two different ways of processing information. One channel processes visual/ spatial information like illustrations, animations, videos or texts. The other channel processes information in the form of auditory/ non-verbal sounds. Baddeley's model of working memory<ref> Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon </ref> and Paivio’s [[dual coding theory]] <ref> Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149–210. </ref> have influenced this assumption.
 
==== Approaches for information processing ====
 
There are two approaches to understand how information is processed in the two channels:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Approaches towards Dual Channels
|-
! Representation mode !! Sensory mode
|-
| This approach evaluates if the information presented is verbal (spoken or printed) or non-verbal. According to this approach, one channel processes verbal material while the other processes visual material and non-verbal sounds. || This approach focuses on whether learners initially process the presented material through their eyes  (like pictures, video, animation, or printed words) or ears (like for spoken words or background sounds). This means that one channel processes visually represented material while the other processes auditorily represented material.
|}
 
The CTML uses the '''sensory mode approach''' in its theory.
 
Important to Paivio’s dual-coding theory <ref> Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Press </ref> is the idea of '''cross-channel representations'''. It refers to the learner’s ability to take information presented in one form (visual or auditory) and convert it to the other form after mentally processing it.
 
=== Limited Capacity ===
The [https://ectwiki.online/index.php?title=Capacity_Limitations_Principle#Design_Implications limited capacity]makes it essential to measure the cognitive information-processing capacity of an individual. On average, the human mind can retain 4-7 [[chunking | chunks]] of information in the working memory during information processing.
 
The limited capacity of processing information helps make decisions about which pieces of information to focus on, the connection between them and the connection to prior knowledge. The central executive controls the allocation of central resources <ref> Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston,MA: Allyn & Bacon. </ref>, and [[metacognition | metacognitive]] strategies help allocate, monitor, coordinate and adjust limited cognitive resources.
 
=== Active Processing ===
Active processing is when a learner uses cognitive resources to make sense of incoming information by making sense and building a mental model of it. While structuring incoming knowledge, the learner uses process, comparison, generalization, enumeration and classification as knowledge structures. <ref> Chambliss, M. J., & Calfee, R. C. (1998). Textbooks for Learning. Oxford: Blackwell. </ref> In designing multimedia instructional material, it thus becomes essential to provide coherent structure and guidance on building knowledge structures for the learner to make sense of the materials.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Processes of Structuring Knowledge <ref> Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 </ref>
|-
! Knowledge Structure !! Representation
|-
| Process ||  Cause-and-effect chains and consist of explanations of how some system works
|-
| Comparison || Matrices and consist of comparisons among two or more elements along several dimensions
|-
| Generalisation || Branching tree and consists of a main idea with subordinate supporting details.
|-
| Enumeration || Lists and consist of a collection of items.
|-
| Classification ||  Hierarchies and consist of sets and subsets
|}
 
== Cognitive Processes in Active Processing ==
 
These processes are essential for active learning <ref> Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015). Learning as a Generative
Activity. New York: Cambridge University Press. </ref> and take place within the working memory of the cognitive system. It involves activating prior knowledge from the long-term memory, analyzing and integrating it with incoming  selected information.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cognitive Processes in Active Learning <ref> Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 </ref>
|-
! Process !! Description
|-
| Selecting || Attending to relevant material in the presented lesson for transfer to working memory
|-
| Organising || Mentally organizing selected information into a coherent cognitive structure in working memory
|-
| Integrating || Connecting cognitive structures with each other and with relevant prior knowledge activated from long-term memory
|}
 
== '''Three memory stores''' ==
According to CTML, there are three aspects of memory central to information processing. The are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Memory stores in CTML <ref> Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 </ref>
|-
! Memory store !! Description !! Capacity !! Duration !! Format
|-
| Sensory Memory || Stores the information received from a multimedia message. Consists of two parts: visual and auditory, which briefly copies the incoming words, pictures and sounds. || Unlimited  || A few seconds  || Visual or auditory sensory images or sounds
|-
| Working memory || Temporarily stores and manipulates information while it is being processed and used. Active processing in conscious awareness takes place in the working memory. This also involves creating mental representations. || Limited || Short || Verbal and pictorial representations
|-
| Long-term memory || Storehouse of knowledge, holding larger chunks of information for a long time. Information needs to be brought into working memory for processing. || Unlimited || Permanent || Knowledge
|}
 
 
[[File:Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.png|750px|]]
 
 
Multimedia presentation enters the learner's mind and is perceived through sensory memory - either through the eyes or ears. Only selected words enter the working memory where the information is being processed, manipulated and integrated. The prior knowledge structures from the long-term memory are being activated and enter the working memory. The new information interacts and integrates with the prior knowledge. [[Metacognition]] and motivation affect the information processing in the working memory.
 
== '''Five processes in CTML''' ==
In order to learn effectively in a multimedia environment, the learner needs to undergo five different processes, not necessarily in linear order, so that the learner can coordinate and monitor the incoming information.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Five cognitive processes in CTML <ref> Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 </ref>
|-
! Process !! Description || Memory || Processing
|-
| Selecting words || Learner pays attention to relevant words in a multimedia message to create sounds || From Sensory Memory to  Working memory || Learner engages in metacognitive processing while uses existing knowledge to determine which words are most relevant.
|-
| Selecting images || Learner pays attention to relevant pictures in a multimedia message to create images || From Sensory Memory to  Working memory || Learner engages in metacognitive processing while uses existing knowledge to determine which images are most relevant.
|-
| Organizing words || Learner builds connections among selected words to create a coherent verbal model || Inside the Working Memory || Reflects the process of sense-making
|-
| Organizing images || Learner builds connections among selected images to create a coherent pictorial model || Inside the Working Memory || Reflects the process of sense-making
|-
| Integrating ||  Learner builds connections between verbal and pictorial models and with prior knowledge || From Long-term Memory to Working Memory to Long-term Memory || The effort required to engage in integrating is supported
by the learner’s motivation to understand the lesson
|}
 
== '''Five forms of representations''' ==
 
There are five forms in which words and pictures are represented as information in the form of stimuli to the learner. They can be elucidated as follows:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+  Five forms of representation in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning <ref> Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 </ref>
|-
! Types of knowledge !! Location !! Example
|-
| Words and pictures || Multimedia presentation || Sound waves created by narration of "This is a girl", pixel patterns on the computer screen showing a girl
|-
| Acoustic and iconic representations || Sensory memory || Received sounds in the learner's ears corresponding to the narration; Received image in the learner's eyes corresponding to the picture
|-
| Sounds and images || Working memory || Selection sounds "This is a girl"; Selecting the image of "girl" ||
|-
| Verbal and pictorial models || Working memory || Mental model of the girl
|-
| Prior knowledge || Long-term memory || Schema for characteristics of a girl
|}
 
 
It is important to realize that the sensory representations fade rapidly unless the learner pays attention to them.
 
== '''Three kinds of demands on cognitive load capacity ''' ==
 
The learner's information processing system differs it cognitive capacity. The goal of effective instructional design is to guide the learner's learning without creating a cognitive overload on their working memory. This can be supported by the three kinds of demands on the learners information processing system.
 
=== '''Principles for Multimedia Instructions''' ===
 
[[Mayer's Principles in Multimedia Learning]] provide guidance for designing multimedia instruction taking into account how the human mind works. The principles are aimed at achieving the three primary goals of instructional design: reduce extraneous processing, manage essential processing, and foster generative processing. Additionally, Mayer also proposes principles to use Social and Affective features of Multimedia Learning.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Three demands on cognitive capacity during multimedia learning (Triarchic Model) <ref> Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 </ref>
|-
! Name !! Description !! Cause || Learning Process || Equivalent in [[Cognitive Load Theory]] || Example || Relevant [[Mayer's Principles in Multimedia Learning ]]
|-
| Extraneous Processing || Cognitive processing not related to the instructional goal || Poor instructional Design || None  || Extraneous cognitive load || Focusing on irrelevant material || [[Expertise Reversal Principle]], [[Coherence Principle]], [[Signaling Principle]] ,[[Redundancy Principle]], [[Spatial Contiguity Principle]], [[Temporal Contiguity Principle]], [[Split Attention Principle]], [[Worked Example Principle]]
|-
| Essential Processing || Cognitive processing to represent the essential material in working memory || Complexity of material presented || Selecting || Intrinsic cognitive load || Memorizing the description of essential processing || [[Multimedia Principle]], [[Multiple Representation Principle]], [[Segmenting Principle]], [[Pre-Training Principle]] , [[Modality Principle]], [[Transient Information Principle]] , [[Immersion Principle]]
|-
| [[Generative Processing]] || Cognitive processing aimed at making sense of the material || Motivation to learn || Organizing and integrating || Germane load || Explaining generative processing in one’s own words || [[Personalization Principle]], [[Voice Principle]], [[Embodiment Principle]], [[Collaboration Principle]], [[Animation Principle]], [[Emotion Design Principle]], [[Generative Activity Principle]], [[Self-Explanation Principle]], [[Guided Discovery Principle]] , [[Mapping Principle]] , [[Generative Drawing Principle]],[[Imagination Principle]], [[Guided Inquiry Principle]],  [[Feedback Principle]], [[Learner Control Principle]], [[Cognitive Load Self-Management Principle]]
|}
 
== '''Three learning scenarios''' ==
 
The triarchic model of cognitive demands presents three learning scenario for learning processing multimedia instructions:
 
=== Extraneous overload: Too much extraneous processing ===
 
[[File:Three learning scenarios extraneous overload.png||px700||]]
 
In the extraneous overload scenario, the learner has to expend their cognitive capacity on extraneous processing due to poor instructional design. This leaves insufficient capacity for essential and generative processing.
 
=== Essential overload: Too much essential processing ===
 
[[File:Three learning scenarios, Essential overload Mayer (2014).png||px750||]]
 
In the essential overload scenario, the material is complicated, hence the learner does not hold enough cognitive capacity to mentally represented the new information. The goal is to manage the essential processing in this scenario.
 
=== Generative underutilization: Not enough generative processing ===


# <u> 2. Limited Capacity </u>
[[File:Three learning scenarios, Generative underutilization Mayer (2014).png||px750||]]
Limited information can be processed in each channel at one time


# <u> 3. Active Processing </u>
The generative underutilization scenario posits a situation in which the instructional material is designed to reduce extraneous overload and manage essential processing. While this leaves the learner with the cognitive capacity to engage in generative processing, the instructional material also needs to provide support to motivate learners to exert and maintain effort for making sense of the material.
Active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representation, integrating mental representation with other knowledge


== '''Implications for Learning Design''' ==


=== Design Implications ===
Humans have ways beyond seeing and hearing to process information. However, CTML does not include channels for smelling, touching, tasking and sensing the body's position and balance to process information. Research on these channels as information processing systems would contribute significantly to understanding the use of immersive virtual reality and augmented reality. Moreover, it would also serve to understand how CTML can be modified for the deaf and blind to learn.




=== Challenges ===
== '''Future of Multimedia Learning''' ==


=== References ===
== '''References''' ==

Latest revision as of 20:03, 16 December 2022

Overview[edit | edit source]

The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) aims to understand how to use words and pictures to improve human learning. The theory builds on the multimedia principle, which suggests that people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone.

CTML postulates that multimedia instructional messages designed with the understanding of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that do not take this into account. CTML is inspired by Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory, which focuses on managing cognitive load for learners to understand complex material.

CTML also considers factors such as the learner's prior knowledge, motivation and learning characteristics when designing effective multimedia instructional materials. The three primary goals of instructional design are reduce extraneous processing, manage essential processing, and foster generative processing.


Three Assumptions[edit | edit source]

Traditional common-sensical perceptions about learning assume that learners possess a single-channel, unlimited capacity and passive processing system. However, CTML takes into consideration current research (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015; Mayer, 2011, 2021). The three assumptions by CTML are:

CTML Assumptions
Dual Channel Limited Capacity Active Processing
Humans process visual and auditory information from separate channels. Limited information can be processed in each channel at one time. Active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representation, integrating mental representation with other knowledge.

Dual Channel[edit | edit source]

The Dual Channel assumption posits that humans have two different ways of processing information. One channel processes visual/ spatial information like illustrations, animations, videos or texts. The other channel processes information in the form of auditory/ non-verbal sounds. Baddeley's model of working memory[1] and Paivio’s dual coding theory [2] have influenced this assumption.

Approaches for information processing[edit | edit source]

There are two approaches to understand how information is processed in the two channels:

Approaches towards Dual Channels
Representation mode Sensory mode
This approach evaluates if the information presented is verbal (spoken or printed) or non-verbal. According to this approach, one channel processes verbal material while the other processes visual material and non-verbal sounds. This approach focuses on whether learners initially process the presented material through their eyes (like pictures, video, animation, or printed words) or ears (like for spoken words or background sounds). This means that one channel processes visually represented material while the other processes auditorily represented material.

The CTML uses the sensory mode approach in its theory.

Important to Paivio’s dual-coding theory [3] is the idea of cross-channel representations. It refers to the learner’s ability to take information presented in one form (visual or auditory) and convert it to the other form after mentally processing it.

Limited Capacity[edit | edit source]

The limited capacitymakes it essential to measure the cognitive information-processing capacity of an individual. On average, the human mind can retain 4-7 chunks of information in the working memory during information processing.

The limited capacity of processing information helps make decisions about which pieces of information to focus on, the connection between them and the connection to prior knowledge. The central executive controls the allocation of central resources [4], and metacognitive strategies help allocate, monitor, coordinate and adjust limited cognitive resources.

Active Processing[edit | edit source]

Active processing is when a learner uses cognitive resources to make sense of incoming information by making sense and building a mental model of it. While structuring incoming knowledge, the learner uses process, comparison, generalization, enumeration and classification as knowledge structures. [5] In designing multimedia instructional material, it thus becomes essential to provide coherent structure and guidance on building knowledge structures for the learner to make sense of the materials.

Processes of Structuring Knowledge [6]
Knowledge Structure Representation
Process Cause-and-effect chains and consist of explanations of how some system works
Comparison Matrices and consist of comparisons among two or more elements along several dimensions
Generalisation Branching tree and consists of a main idea with subordinate supporting details.
Enumeration Lists and consist of a collection of items.
Classification Hierarchies and consist of sets and subsets

Cognitive Processes in Active Processing[edit | edit source]

These processes are essential for active learning [7] and take place within the working memory of the cognitive system. It involves activating prior knowledge from the long-term memory, analyzing and integrating it with incoming selected information.

Cognitive Processes in Active Learning [8]
Process Description
Selecting Attending to relevant material in the presented lesson for transfer to working memory
Organising Mentally organizing selected information into a coherent cognitive structure in working memory
Integrating Connecting cognitive structures with each other and with relevant prior knowledge activated from long-term memory

Three memory stores[edit | edit source]

According to CTML, there are three aspects of memory central to information processing. The are:

Memory stores in CTML [9]
Memory store Description Capacity Duration Format
Sensory Memory Stores the information received from a multimedia message. Consists of two parts: visual and auditory, which briefly copies the incoming words, pictures and sounds. Unlimited A few seconds Visual or auditory sensory images or sounds
Working memory Temporarily stores and manipulates information while it is being processed and used. Active processing in conscious awareness takes place in the working memory. This also involves creating mental representations. Limited Short Verbal and pictorial representations
Long-term memory Storehouse of knowledge, holding larger chunks of information for a long time. Information needs to be brought into working memory for processing. Unlimited Permanent Knowledge


File:Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.png


Multimedia presentation enters the learner's mind and is perceived through sensory memory - either through the eyes or ears. Only selected words enter the working memory where the information is being processed, manipulated and integrated. The prior knowledge structures from the long-term memory are being activated and enter the working memory. The new information interacts and integrates with the prior knowledge. Metacognition and motivation affect the information processing in the working memory.

Five processes in CTML[edit | edit source]

In order to learn effectively in a multimedia environment, the learner needs to undergo five different processes, not necessarily in linear order, so that the learner can coordinate and monitor the incoming information.

Five cognitive processes in CTML [10]
Process Description Memory Processing
Selecting words Learner pays attention to relevant words in a multimedia message to create sounds From Sensory Memory to Working memory Learner engages in metacognitive processing while uses existing knowledge to determine which words are most relevant.
Selecting images Learner pays attention to relevant pictures in a multimedia message to create images From Sensory Memory to Working memory Learner engages in metacognitive processing while uses existing knowledge to determine which images are most relevant.
Organizing words Learner builds connections among selected words to create a coherent verbal model Inside the Working Memory Reflects the process of sense-making
Organizing images Learner builds connections among selected images to create a coherent pictorial model Inside the Working Memory Reflects the process of sense-making
Integrating Learner builds connections between verbal and pictorial models and with prior knowledge From Long-term Memory to Working Memory to Long-term Memory The effort required to engage in integrating is supported

by the learner’s motivation to understand the lesson

Five forms of representations[edit | edit source]

There are five forms in which words and pictures are represented as information in the form of stimuli to the learner. They can be elucidated as follows:

Five forms of representation in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning [11]
Types of knowledge Location Example
Words and pictures Multimedia presentation Sound waves created by narration of "This is a girl", pixel patterns on the computer screen showing a girl
Acoustic and iconic representations Sensory memory Received sounds in the learner's ears corresponding to the narration; Received image in the learner's eyes corresponding to the picture
Sounds and images Working memory Selection sounds "This is a girl"; Selecting the image of "girl"
Verbal and pictorial models Working memory Mental model of the girl
Prior knowledge Long-term memory Schema for characteristics of a girl


It is important to realize that the sensory representations fade rapidly unless the learner pays attention to them.

Three kinds of demands on cognitive load capacity [edit | edit source]

The learner's information processing system differs it cognitive capacity. The goal of effective instructional design is to guide the learner's learning without creating a cognitive overload on their working memory. This can be supported by the three kinds of demands on the learners information processing system.

Principles for Multimedia Instructions[edit | edit source]

Mayer's Principles in Multimedia Learning provide guidance for designing multimedia instruction taking into account how the human mind works. The principles are aimed at achieving the three primary goals of instructional design: reduce extraneous processing, manage essential processing, and foster generative processing. Additionally, Mayer also proposes principles to use Social and Affective features of Multimedia Learning.


Three demands on cognitive capacity during multimedia learning (Triarchic Model) [12]
Name Description Cause Learning Process Equivalent in Cognitive Load Theory Example Relevant Mayer's Principles in Multimedia Learning
Extraneous Processing Cognitive processing not related to the instructional goal Poor instructional Design None Extraneous cognitive load Focusing on irrelevant material Expertise Reversal Principle, Coherence Principle, Signaling Principle ,Redundancy Principle, Spatial Contiguity Principle, Temporal Contiguity Principle, Split Attention Principle, Worked Example Principle
Essential Processing Cognitive processing to represent the essential material in working memory Complexity of material presented Selecting Intrinsic cognitive load Memorizing the description of essential processing Multimedia Principle, Multiple Representation Principle, Segmenting Principle, Pre-Training Principle , Modality Principle, Transient Information Principle , Immersion Principle
Generative Processing Cognitive processing aimed at making sense of the material Motivation to learn Organizing and integrating Germane load Explaining generative processing in one’s own words Personalization Principle, Voice Principle, Embodiment Principle, Collaboration Principle, Animation Principle, Emotion Design Principle, Generative Activity Principle, Self-Explanation Principle, Guided Discovery Principle , Mapping Principle , Generative Drawing Principle,Imagination Principle, Guided Inquiry Principle, Feedback Principle, Learner Control Principle, Cognitive Load Self-Management Principle

Three learning scenarios[edit | edit source]

The triarchic model of cognitive demands presents three learning scenario for learning processing multimedia instructions:

Extraneous overload: Too much extraneous processing[edit | edit source]

File:Three learning scenarios extraneous overload.png

In the extraneous overload scenario, the learner has to expend their cognitive capacity on extraneous processing due to poor instructional design. This leaves insufficient capacity for essential and generative processing.

Essential overload: Too much essential processing[edit | edit source]

File:Three learning scenarios, Essential overload Mayer (2014).png

In the essential overload scenario, the material is complicated, hence the learner does not hold enough cognitive capacity to mentally represented the new information. The goal is to manage the essential processing in this scenario.

Generative underutilization: Not enough generative processing[edit | edit source]

File:Three learning scenarios, Generative underutilization Mayer (2014).png

The generative underutilization scenario posits a situation in which the instructional material is designed to reduce extraneous overload and manage essential processing. While this leaves the learner with the cognitive capacity to engage in generative processing, the instructional material also needs to provide support to motivate learners to exert and maintain effort for making sense of the material.

Implications for Learning Design[edit | edit source]

Humans have ways beyond seeing and hearing to process information. However, CTML does not include channels for smelling, touching, tasking and sensing the body's position and balance to process information. Research on these channels as information processing systems would contribute significantly to understanding the use of immersive virtual reality and augmented reality. Moreover, it would also serve to understand how CTML can be modified for the deaf and blind to learn.


Future of Multimedia Learning[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
  2. ↑ Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149–210.
  3. ↑ Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Press
  4. ↑ Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Human Memory. Boston,MA: Allyn & Bacon.
  5. ↑ Chambliss, M. J., & Calfee, R. C. (1998). Textbooks for Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
  6. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  7. ↑ Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015). Learning as a Generative Activity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  8. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  9. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  10. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  11. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
  12. ↑ Mayer, R. (2021). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 57-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008
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